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Holmes notes that language-restricted theories e. Q Rank-restricted theories are linguistic theories that have been restricted to a level of normally the word or sentence.

At the time Holmes was writing, there was already a trend towards text linguistics, i. Text-type approaches came to prominence with the work of Reiss and Vermeer, among others, in the s see Chapter 5. Q The term time-restricted is self-explanatory, referring to theories and trans- lations limited according to specific time frames and periods. The history of translation falls into this category. Despite this categorization, Holmes himself is at pains to point out that several different restrictions may apply at any one time.

Thus, the study of the prefaces to the new English translations of novels by Marcel Proust, analysed in Chapter 2, would be area restricted translation from Parisian French into English , text-type restricted prefaces to a novel and time restricted to Another area Holmes mentions is translation policy, where he sees the transla- tion scholar advising on the place of translation in society. This should include what place, if any, it should occupy in the language teaching and learning curriculum.

There are drawbacks to the structure. The main merit of the divisions is, as Toury states ; 93 , that they allow a clarification and a division of labour between the various areas of translation studies which, in the past, have often been confused. The divisions are still flexible enough to incorporate develop- ments such as the technological advances of recent years see Chapter Even a cursory glance at Figure 1.

However, it is not difficult to expand it, as in Figure 1. The map is still often employed as a point of departure, even if subsequent theoretical discussions have attempted to rewrite parts of it e.

Also, present-day research has transformed the perspective. The different restrictions, which Toury identifies as relating to the descriptive as well as the purely theoretical branch in the discontinuous vertical lines in Figure 1. Inclusion of interpreting as a sub-category of human translation would also be disputed by many scholars. Yet it was precisely the split between theory and practice that Holmes, himself both a literary translator and a researcher, sought to overcome. How easy is it to do so?

Where would you locate your own work or studies in this schema? Contrastive linguistics generally fell by the wayside, but has resurfaced thanks to the advances in machine translation and corpus-based studies see Chapter Germany has seen the rise of theories centred around text types and text purpose the skopos theory of Reiss and Vermeer, see Chapter 5.

The Hallidayan influence of discourse anal- ysis and systemic functional grammar, which views language as a communicative act in a sociocultural context, came to prominence in the early s, especially in Australia and the UK. The late s and the s also saw the rise of a descriptive approach that had its origins in compar- ative literature and Russian Formalism see Chapter 7. A pioneering centre was Tel Aviv, where Itamar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury pursued the idea of the literary polysystem in which, among other things, different literatures and genres, including translated and non-translated works, compete for dominance.

This dynamic, culturally oriented approach held sway for much of the following decade Chapter 8. The s saw the incorporation of new approaches and concepts: Canadian-based translation and gender research led by Sherry Simon, the Brazilian Cannibalist School promoted by Else Vieira, and postcolonial trans- lation theory with the prominent figures of the Bengali scholars Tejaswini Niranjana and Gayatri Spivak Chapter 8.

In the USA, the cultural studies-oriented analysis of Lawrence Venuti called for greater visibility and recognition of the translator Chapter 9. Inghilleri a, Wolf and Fukari , Rundle , Vorderobermeier and process-oriented research e. Research activity, as well as the practice of transla- tion, has also been revolutionized by new technologies.

These new areas include machine and automatic translation, audiovisual and multimodal translation, locali- zation and corpus-based translation studies see Chapter Furthermore, the international reach of the discipline has expanded enormously with research and training in Asia e.

Figure 1. Linguistic transfer of course still occurs within a sociocultural and historical context and institutional environment that place their own constraints on the process. A notable characteristic of recent research has been its interdisciplinarity.

Rather it is an entity that exists in the interstices of the existing fields, dealing with some, many or all of them. It is the Phoenician trader among the settled nations. Its existence is enigmatic in such a world; the enigma challenges us to rethink how we organise and institutionalise knowledge. McCarty An interdiscipline therefore challenges the current conventional way of thinking by promoting and responding to new links between different types of knowledge and technologies.

For us, translation studies would itself be the Phoenician trader among longer-established disciplines. It has the potential for a primary relationship with disciplines such as: Q linguistics especially semantics, pragmatics, applied and contrastive linguis- tics, cognitive linguistics ; Q modern languages and language studies; Q comparative literature; Q cultural studies including gender studies and postcolonial studies ; Q philosophy of language and meaning, including hermeneutics and deconstruction and ethics ; and, in recent years, with sociology, history and creative writing.

Some current projects are also multidisciplinary, involving the participation of researchers from various disciplines, including translation studies.

It is important to point out that the relationship of translation studies to other disciplines is not fixed. This explains the changes over the years, from a strong link to contrastive linguistics in the s to the present focus on more cultural studies perspectives and even the recent shift towards areas such as computing and multi-media.

Other, secondary, relationships come to the fore when dealing with the area of applied translation studies, such as translator training.

While the discussion has continued on interdisciplinarity e. Ferreira Duarte et al. Moreover, interdisciplinarity adds to the spread of paradigms and may, therefore, weaken further the status of [translation research] and [interpreting research] as autonomous disciplines. Gile 29 It is also true that translation studies has in some places been colonized by language departments driven by the perceived attractiveness of academic teaching programmes centred on the practice of translation but harbouring their own academic prejudices.

Ironically, this has also worsened the artificial gap between practice and theory. This ignores the fact that the practice of translation is an invalu- able, not to say essential, experience for the translation theorist and trainer. As the editors, with some understatement, pointed out in the introduction ibid. Within this framework the choice of theory and methodology becomes important.

See also the bibliometric study by Zanettin et al. Even the object of study, therefore, has shifted over time, from translation as primarily connected to language teaching and learning to the study of the circum- stances in which translation and translators operate.

Summary Translation studies is an academic research area that has expanded massively over the years. The discipline as we now know it owes much to the work of James S. Holmes, who proposed both a name and a structure for the field, but the context has now advanced.

The interrelated branches of theoretical, descrip- tive and applied translation studies initially structured research. Over time the interdisciplinarity and specialization of the subject have become more evident and theories and models have continued to be imported from other disciplines but also forged from within translation studies itself. In what contexts are they used? How easy is it to define these terms? What do you conclude is the status of translation studies in your country?

Carry out the same exercise with the van Doorslaer schema and compare the results. The ITS website at www. Q The importance of the translation of sacred texts. Q The vitalization of the vernacular: Luther and the German Bible. Q The influence of Dryden and the triad of metaphrase, paraphrase, imitation.

Q Attempts at a more systematic prescriptive approach from Dolet and Tytler. Q Schleiermacher: a separate language of translation and respect for the foreign. Q The vagueness of the early terms used to describe translation.

Cheung, Martha ed. The aim of this chapter is not to attempt a comprehensive history of translation or translators through the ages; this would be beyond the scope of any book. In this chapter, we focus on a select few of the readily available writings based on the criterion of the influence they have exerted on the history of translation theory and research. The list of further reading will note some of the others that have a justifiable claim for inclusion or that provide a more detailed account.

Historically, there has also been a very strong tendency to concentrate on western European writing on translation, starting with the Roman tradition, although over the past decades there has been an ever-growing list of publications in English addressing the wider geographic framework and for a wider audience. In the west, where the status of the Classical authors of ancient Greece and Rome remained pre-eminent, it formed the basis of key writings on translation for nearly two thousand years.

And in so doing, I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. The disparagement of word-for-word translation came from others as well, such as the poet Horace, who, in a short but famous passage from his Ars Poetica c.

This attitude had great influence on the succeeding centuries. For the Old Testament, he decided to return to the original Hebrew. This was a decision that was controversial to those who maintained the divine inspiration of the Greek Septuagint, the commonly accepted translation of the older texts, in use among Christians Rebenich 53—4.

By comparing the Greek Septuagint translation with the Hebrew original, Jerome noted points where the two versions differed. Jerome rejected the word-for-word approach because, by following so closely the form of the ST, it produced an absurd translation, cloaking the sense of the original. The sense-for-sense approach, on the other hand, allowed the sense or content of the ST to be translated.

To illustrate the concept of the TL taking over the sense of the ST, Jerome uses the military image of the original text being marched into the TL like a prisoner by its conqueror Robinson b: Indeed, Jerome is explicitly making some distinction between different text types.

The same concerns have been represented in other rich and ancient translation traditions such as in China and the Arab world. For instance, Hung and Pollard used similar terms when describing the history of Chinese translation of Buddhist sutras from Sanskrit see Box 2.

Box 2. This was probably due not only to the lack of bilin- gual ability among the [translation] forum participants, but also to a belief that the sacred words of the enlightened should not be tampered with. In addition to contorted target-language syntax, transliteration was used very liberally, with the result that the translations were fairly incomprehensible to anyone without a theological grounding.

Syntactic inversions were smoothed out according to target language usage, and the drafts were polished to give them a high literary quality. In extreme cases, the polishing might have gone too far, and there are extant discussions of how this affected the original message.

He also set down rules governing the use of transliteration, and these were adopted by many of his successors. Aesthetic and stylistic considerations are again noted, and there appear to be the first steps towards a rudimentary differentiation of text types, with non-literary STs being treated differently from literary TTs.

Some of the issues, such as transliteration, relate most clearly to the problem of translation of foreign elements and names into a non-phonetic language Chinese. However, it should be stressed that Hung and Pollard later revised and extended their discussion, empha- sizing the changing context in which these translations were made. For example, the third phase was marked by increased linguistic competence and theological expertise on the part of the monks and officials involved and by stricter regulation on participation in the translation forums.

This is the second loss to the original. Now, cutting them off is the third loss to the original. Examining these commentaries with regard to the words [of the main text? Removing about 1, [of the words?

Over recent years, there has been increased interest from the west in Chinese and other writing on translation and this has highlighted some important theo- retical points.

In many cases the Sanskrit version has been lost but the Chinese has survived, which of course means that there is no longer any way of checking against any supposed ST. These were centred on the translation into Arabic of Greek scientific and philosophical material, often with Syriac as an intermediary language Delisle and Woodsworth Once again, the terminology of this description is strongly influenced by the Classical western European discourse on translation.

Although this does not negate the applicability of the two poles of translation to the Arabic tradition, there are of course other ways of considering the question. Over the years, this saw the increased use of Arabic neologisms rather than the transliteration of Greek terms. Arab translators also became very creative in supplying instructive and explanatory commentaries and notes.

Instead, he emphasizes the social, political and ideological factors involved. He contends Gutas —50 that the wealth of texts increased the demand for transla- tors which in turn led to their greater professionalization and improved knowledge of Greek. These included the translations of the medical writings of Hippocrates c.

Read the article by Krishnamurthy , available through the ITS website, for a discussion of the Indian tradition. Language and translation became the sites of a huge power struggle. Latin, controlled by the Church in Rome, had a stranglehold over knowledge and reli- gion until challenged by the European Humanist movement of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Then, in the early fifteenth century, the Protestant Reformation of northern Europe, which was to lead to a huge schism within Christianity, began to challenge Latin through the translation of the Bible into vernacular languages.

Even the mere act of translation could be considered a threat to the established order — for instance, the Index of the Spanish Inquisition prohibited the publication of the Bible in any vernacular language Barnstone An even worse fate lay in store for some of the translators who sought to make such texts available to a wider public. The most famous examples are the English theologian-translator William Tyndale c. Tyndale was a formidable linguist who was said to have mastered ten languages, including Hebrew.

His extraordinary English Bible, produced in exile, was later used as the basis for the Geneva Bible and King James version Tyndale was abducted, tried for heresy and executed in the Netherlands in Bobrick , Chapter 2. The revolution in Bible translation practice in Europe was galvanized by Humanist advances in the study and knowledge of Greek and Hebrew and of Classical scholarship. The general climate of the Reformation and the new technology of the printing press meant that Bible translations dominated book production Bobrick Non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.

Luther played a pivotal role in the Reformation while, linguis- tically, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that variety of the German language as standard. Luther follows St Jerome in rejecting a word-for-word translation strategy since it would be unable to convey the same meaning as the ST and would some- times be incomprehensible. For her, theory was generally unconnected and amounted to a broad series of prefaces and comments by practitioners who often ignored, or were ignorant of, earlier discourse.

As a result: [t]his lack of consecutiveness in criticism is probably partially accountable for the slowness with which translators attained the power to put into words, clearly and unmistakably, their aims and methods. Kelly looks in detail at the history of western translation theory, starting with the teachings of the Greek and Latin writers of Classical Antiquity and tracing the history of what he calls ibid.

These were sites for contestation, depending to a large degree on historical context and on societal conceptualizations of translation. So, the concept of fidelity or at least the translator who was fidus interpres, i. Indeed, it was not until the end of the seventeenth century that fidelity had come to be generally identified with faithfulness to the meaning rather than the words of the author.

Kelly ibid. Much later, spirit lost the religious sense it originally possessed and was thenceforth used in the sense of the creative energy of a text or language. In contrast to Amos, Rener makes a persuasive case for continuity in the early translation prefaces in the west. Grammar privileged words that exhibited the values of proprietas acceptability , puritas purity and perspecuitas clarity ; a word should be accepted as an inte- gral part of the language and commonly understood, it should have a long history and be employed in the texts of high-status writers.

The influence of this thinking persisted. A keen example of the importance of rhetoric can be seen in the Italian humanist Leonardo Bruni — , who translated philosophical works of the Classical Greek and Latin authors and occupied high ecclesiastical office. For him, such stylistic demands could only be met through the learn- edness and literariness of the translator, who needed to possess excellent knowl- edge of the original language and considerable literary ability in his own language.

Note his description of the move in translation from Early Modern literalism to Humanist style and rhetoric. See also Hermans At that time, apart from the Bible, translation into English was almost exclusively confined to verse renderings of Greek and Latin Classics.

Because at that time translation had come to be valued as an exercise in creativity and novelty, some of these renderings were extremely free. Such a very free approach to translation produced a reaction, notably from another English poet and translator, John Dryden — , whose brief description of the translation process would have enormous impact on subsequent translation theory and practice.

Dryden thus prefers paraphrase, advising that metaphrase and imitation be avoided. See Venuti 52—3 for further discussion. In general, Dryden and others writing on translation at the time are very prescrip- tive, setting out what in their opinion has to be done in order for successful transla- tion to take place.

Other early writers on translation also began to state their principles in a simi- larly prescriptive fashion. Here again, the concern is to reproduce the sense and to avoid word-for-word translation. But the stress on producing an eloquent and natural TL form was rooted in a Humanist enthusiasm for the rediscovered Classics and a political desire to reinforce the structure and independence of the new vernacular French language. The third law ibid.

Tytler regards this as the most difficult task and likens it, in a traditional meta- phor, to an artist producing a copy of a painting. But it is unclear what that actually is. Tytler himself recognizes that the first two laws represent the two widely different opinions about translation.

They can be seen as the poles of faithfulness of content and faithfulness of form, reformulations of the sense-for-sense and word-for-word diad of Cicero and St Jerome. Importantly, however, just as Dolet had done with his principles, Tytler ranks his three laws in order of comparative importance. Such hierarchical categorization gains force in more modern translation theory. Thus, ease of composition would be sacrificed if necessary for manner, and manner could be sacrificed in the interests of sense.

These concepts became central to twentieth- century Chinese translation practice and theory. Hermans , online usefully discusses the range of meanings inherent in the three principles as well as the disagreements as to how these concepts align with western translation theory. Modern-day Chinese linguists have also criticized his principles for being vague and difficult to apply Chan Distinct from other translation theorists we have discussed so far in this chapter, Schleiermacher first distinguishes two different types of translator working on two different types of text.

This does not entail writing as the author would have done had he written in German. Thus can the TT be faithful to the sense and sound of the ST and can import the foreign concepts and culture into German Forster The dichotomy is assumed to have analysable meaning.

This is the central epistemological weakness and sleight of hand. These approaches form the core of the following chapters in this book. Case study 1 examines two examples of criteria for assessing translations. In both cases the aim is to iden- tify how far the ideas and vocabulary of early theory held sway in later writing on translation.

Case study 1: Assessment criteria The area of assessment criteria is one where a more expert writer a marker of a translation examination or a reviser of a professional translation addresses a less expert reader usually a candidate for an examination or a junior professional translator. It is interesting to see how far the vocabulary used is the rather vague vocabulary of early translation theory.

As we discuss in Chapter 3, these terms are influenced by terminology suggested by Nida in the s. Thus, these criteria make an attempt at formalizing clear rules for translation. Nevertheless, the qualification of the adjective literal by the adverbs too and totally suggests that literal alone is not now being viewed as the extreme. Rather, as was suggested in section 2. The first of these points indicates the extent to which old metaphors of translation persisted even in quite modern writings.

The third point shows an awareness that different approaches may be valid for different texts. This was noted by Schleiermacher in his division of categories into business and philosophical texts but which, as we discuss in Chapter 5, has far more to do with the text-type approach of Reiss.

Sometimes their function is to justify the production of a new transla- tion of a classic work. Originally translated from French into English in the s by the celebrated Charles Kenneth Scott Moncrieff — , the English was revised in by Terence Kilmartin and in by D. The language of the prefaces reflects the cultural values of the time in which the translations were created.

In the introduction of the translation p. Kilmartin ibid. They are often strange even to French ears, and there may well be a respectable argument to the effect that oddly unEnglish shapes are sometimes the best way of preserving their estranging force. At the same time, he shows an awareness of the possible choices between foreignizing and naturalizing translation see Schleiermacher and seeks a balance rather than modernizing the old TT.

Davis in Proust xxxi Discussion of case studies These two brief case studies indicate that the vocabulary of early translation theory persisted widely to the end of the twentieth century and beyond.

However, the texts examined in the case studies were written mainly for the general reader or novice translator. As we shall see in the next chapter, the direction of translation theory from the second half of the twentieth century was generally towards a systematization of different elements of the translation process.

Summary The general trend of western translation theory from Cicero in Classical antiquity to the twentieth century centred on the recurring debate as to whether transla- tions should be literal word-for-word or free sense-for-sense , a diad that is famously discussed by St Jerome in his translation of the Bible into Latin.

Controversy over the translation of the Bible was central to translation theory in the west for well over a thousand years. Early western theorists tended to be translators who presented a justification for their approach in a preface to the translation. They are often portrayed as paying little attention or not having access to what others before them had written. However, they reflected a faith- fulness to the religious text, often manifested in Early Modern literalism, or a Classical view of language based on principles of clarity, logic and elegance that came to the fore with the advent of European Humanism.

Further reading There are a large number of collections and histories of translation. English is partic- ularly well-served with Classe , France , and the five-volume Oxford History of Literary Translation in English Braden et al. Readers are recommended to follow their specific interests regarding country, period, cultures and languages. Delisle and Woodsworth and Baker and Saldanha are particularly useful in giving the background to translation in a wider range of cultures.

Kelly is especially strong on the Latin tradition and Rener is a very detailed exploration on the concept of language and translation from Classical times to Tytler. Adams looks at Latin bilin- gualism in Antiquity and McElduff examines Roman translation theories. Louw and Rajak examine translation of the Septuagint. Bobrick outlines the history of English Bible translation and how it transformed the language; Barnstone does the same from a translation studies perspective.

Selim contains articles on translation and the Arab world. The papers in Hermans a, b cover a range of non-western thought on translation. Pym and Rundle are useful as a presentation of investigative methods in translation history. What kinds of comments are made about the translation itself? How far is the vocabulary used similar to that described in this chapter? How far are the criteria still centred on the theoretical concepts discussed in this chapter? How closely does it resemble the writings discussed in this chapter?

Are there significant differences in early translation theory written in different languages? Compare the varied papers in Hermans a, b. What are the similarities and differences between them? Try and depict this comparison visually see Table 3. How useful do you consider these principles for guiding a translator? CHAPTER 3 Equivalence and equivalent effect Key concepts Q The problem of translatability and equivalence in meaning, discussed by Jakobson and central to translation studies for the following decades.

In order to avoid the age-old opposition between literal and free translation see Chapter 2 , theoreticians in the s and s began to attempt more system- atic analyses. The new debate revolved around certain key linguistic issues. Over the following twenty years many further attempts were made to define the nature of equivalence.

Jakobson goes on to examine key issues of this type of translation, notably linguistic meaning and equivalence. Jakobson follows the theory of language proposed by the famous Swiss linguist Saussure — Instead of cheese, the signifier could easily have been bread, soup, thingummyjig or any other word. Jakobson also stresses that it is possible to understand what is signified by a word even if we have never seen or experienced the concept or thing in real life.

Examples he gives are ambrosia and nectar, words which modern readers will have read in Greek myths even if they have never come across the substances in real life; this contrasts with cheese, which they almost certainly have encountered first-hand in some form.

In Russian, that would be tvarog and not syr. This general principle of interlinguistic difference between terms and semantic fields importantly also has to do with a basic issue of language and translation.

On the one hand, linguistic universalism considers that, although languages may differ in the way they convey meaning and in the surface realizations of that meaning, there is a more or less shared way of thinking and experiencing the world.

On the one hand, linguistic relativity or determinism in its strongest form claims that differences in languages shape different conceptualizations of the world. This is the famous Sapir-Whorf hypothesis that had its roots in the behaviourism of the s and in the anthropological study of the native American Hopi language, which, according to Whorf , had no words or grammatical categories to indicate time.

Another claim that is often made is that Eskimos have more words for snow because they perceive or conceive of it differently. This claim, and indeed linguistic determinism itself, is firmly rejected, amongst others, by Pinker 57—65; —51 , who points out that the vocabulary of a language simply reflects what speakers need for everyday life.

The absence of a word in a language does not mean that a concept cannot be perceived — someone from a hot climate can be shown slush and snow and can notice the difference. Thus, a translation of cottage cheese would not be the TT unit for cottage plus the unit for cheese; the message cottage cheese would be consid- ered and translated as a whole.

Thus, Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two separate concepts. For Jakobson ibid. Examples of differences are easy to find. They occur at: Q the level of gender: e. These examples illustrate differences between languages, but they are still concepts that can be rendered interlingually. As Jakobson ibid.

How are these dealt with in translation? The title of the first book is significant; Nida attempts to move Bible translation into a more scientific era by incorporating recent work in linguistics. In very simplified form, the key features of this model can be summarized as follows: 1 Phrase-structure rules generate an underlying or deep structure which is 2 transformed by transformational rules relating one underlying structure to another e.

The structural relations described in this model are held by Chomsky to be a universal feature of human language. The most basic of such structures are kernel sentences, which are simple, active, declarative sentences that require the minimum of transformation e. In particular, Nida sees that it provides the translator with a technique for decoding the ST and a procedure for encoding the TT Nida a: This three-stage system of translation analysis, transfer and restructuring is presented in Figure 3.

Kernels are to be obtained from the ST surface structure by a reductive process of back transformation. Examples of analysis e. Nida a: 64 , designed to illustrate the different constructions with the preposition of, are: surface structure: will of God back transformation: B object, God performs A event, wills and surface structure: creation of the world back transformation: B object, the world is performed by A event, creates.

Nida and Taber ibid. Box 3. The two examples of literary transfer are different stylistically, notably in syntax, the American Standard Version being more formal and archaic.

Nida ibid. Thus, son denotes a male child. A series of techniques, adapted from linguistics, is presented as an aid for the translator in determining the meaning of different linguistic items. Techniques to determine referential and emotive meaning focus on analysing the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields.

These include hierarchical structuring, which differentiates series of words according to their level for instance, the superordinate animal and its hyponyms goat, dog, cow, etc.

The latter seek to identify and discriminate specific features of a range of related words. The results can be plotted visually to assist in making an overall comparison. For example, Table 3. Table 3. Such results are useful for a translator working with languages that have different kinship terms. Sometimes more values will need to be incorporated.

For example, Chinese may distinguish lexically between the maternal and paternal grandfather. Spirit thus does not always have a religious significance. Even or perhaps especially when it does, as in the term Holy Spirit, its emotive or connotative value varies according to the target culture Nida ibid. Above all, Nida ibid. Thus, the Hebrew idiom bene Chuppah lit. In general, techniques of semantic structure analysis are proposed as a means of clarifying ambiguities, elucidating obscure passages and identifying cultural differences.

They may serve as a point of comparison between different languages and cultures and are proposed by Nida especially for those working with widely differing languages. How far do these map onto the English terms? How helpful is this componential analysis for translation? One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.

This type of translation will often be used in an academic or legal environment and allows the reader closer access to the language and customs of the source culture. Nida a: This receptor-oriented approach considers adjustments of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness.

For Nida, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equiva- lent effect or response. This suggests that the scientific approach is still supported by the essential subjectivity of some of the language of the literal vs. His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based or reader-based orientation to trans- lation theory.

Learn more. Visit now. Many professors are surprised to learn that. There are well-defined instructional techniques that make teaching more effective. These techniques can be introduced slowly and methodically, without compromising coverage of the syllabus. They do not require large expenditures of money, time and effort.